Exporting has been upheld as the “Golden Standard” for industrial upgrading. However, research using the value chain approach shows that upgrading for developing country firms is often limited to the lowest value-added activities. Based on comparative research carried out in two Brazilian clusters (furniture and footwear industries), this paper shows that domestic and regional value chains can offer greater upgrading opportunities, providing space for activities of higher value-added, better remunerated and difficult to replicate, notably design, marketing, and branding. Moreover, this study highlights that many firms simultaneously serve multiple value chains (multichain) and that multichain firms have better upgrading prospects than those primarily exporting via Global Value Chains.
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